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Condensation polymerization

Addition polymerization

Substitution polymerization

Elimination polymerization

They are always solid.

Their orientation can be changed by an electric field, affecting light transmission.

They conduct electricity better than metals.

They are completely opaque to all light.

They are too large to be inhaled.

They may be able to cross biological membranes due to their small size.

They always turn into oxygen gas.

They have no surface area.

$-CH_2-CH_2-$

$-CH_2-CH(CH_3)-$

$-CH_2-CHCl-$

$-CF_2-CF_2-$

Precipitation of metal atoms by reduction with hydrogen gas

Condensation of metal-hydroxide groups to form a continuous $M-O-M$ network

Hydrolysis of the metal alkoxide precursor to form a colloidal suspension

Sintering of the precursor molecules at high temperatures to increase density

The molecules are arranged in layers with no directional order.

The molecules are arranged in a helical structure that changes pitch with temperature.

The molecules are completely stationary and do not flow.

The molecules are arranged in a cubic lattice.

LDPE is denser because its chains are more tightly packed.

HDPE is denser because its linear chains can pack closely together.

They have the same density because they are made of the same monomer.

Density is determined only by the length of the polymer chains.

SEM provides a 3D-like image of the surface, while TEM provides a 2D image of the internal structure by passing electrons through the sample.

SEM uses visible light, while TEM uses a beam of electrons.

TEM can only be used for biological samples, whereas SEM is for metals.

SEM has a much higher resolution than TEM and can see individual nuclei.

To act as the main source of aluminum ions.

To serve as a solvent that lowers the melting point of the alumina ($Al_2O_3$).

To prevent the oxidation of the carbon anodes.

To increase the density of the molten aluminum so it sinks.

They are always toxic to bacteria, which prevents contamination of the product.

They can often be easily recovered and reused due to their high surface energy or magnetic properties.

They eliminate the need for any solvent in the reaction.

They are only active at very high pressures, ensuring safety.

It requires energy and releases water

It produces amino acids

It breaks down the polysaccharide into glucose monomers

It only occurs in the presence of sunlight

$O_2$

$CO_2$

$H_2O$

$NH_3$

The linear sequence of amino acids

Local folding into helices or sheets

The overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain

The interaction between different polypeptide chains

It transports cholesterol from the liver to the arteries

It helps remove cholesterol from the blood and transport it back to the liver

It is the main storage form of glucose

It acts as an enzyme to digest lipids

They are composed of repeating amino acid units.

They are highly polar molecules that dissolve readily in water.

They contain a long system of conjugated double bonds which allows them to absorb light in the visible spectrum.

They are used by the body primarily to synthesize Vitamin C.

A rigid crystalline lattice

A bimolecular layer (bilayer)

A long straight fiber

A gaseous dispersion

Increasing the percentage of Adenine-Thymine pairs.

Increasing the percentage of Guanine-Cytosine pairs.

Decreasing the total length of the DNA strand.

Adding a detergent to disrupt hydrogen bonding.

$25 \mu$mol min$^{-1}$

$50 \mu$mol min$^{-1}$

$75 \mu$mol min$^{-1}$

$85 \mu$mol min$^{-1}$

$pH = pK_a + \log(\frac{[Base]}{[Acid]})$

$pH = pK_a - \log(\frac{[Base]}{[Acid]})$

$pOH = pK_a + \log(\frac{[Acid]}{[Base]})$

$pH = pK_a \times \frac{[Base]}{[Acid]}$

Glucose and Glucose

Glucose and Galactose

Glucose and Fructose

Galactose and Fructose

Ethane

Propane

Butane

Methane

Uranium-235

Technetium-99m

Carbon-14

Potassium-40

Iron powder

Strong base like $NaOH$ or $KOH$

Platinum wire

Manganese dioxide

Increased rainfall over the oceans

Thermal expansion of ocean water

Melting of all sea ice (icebergs)

Decreased evaporation rates

The difference in mass between the reactants and the products, which is converted to energy

The mass of the electrons lost during ionization

The difference between the atomic number and the mass number

The mass of neutrons that escape the reactor

$10 - 400\,nm$

$400 - 700\,nm$

$700\,nm - 1\,mm$

$0.01 - 10\,nm$

Production of carbon dioxide

Release of large amounts of sulfur dioxide leading to acid rain

Depletion of the ozone layer

The greenhouse effect

Because of the energy lost as heat to the surroundings, as dictated by the second law of thermodynamics.

Because the fuel does not burn completely to $CO_2$ and $H_2O$.

Because the octane number of the fuel is too low.

Because of the high friction between moving parts in the engine.

To absorb photons that the dye misses.

To reduce the oxidized dye back to its ground state.

To provide a conductive path for electrons through the $TiO_2$.

To catalyze the reaction at the counter electrode.

Helium-4

Carbon-12

Iron-56

Uranium-238

The time taken for the mass of a drug to double

The time taken for half the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay

The time taken for a drug to reach the liver

The time it takes for a patient to recover halfway

They consist of a cell wall and a nucleus

They can only reproduce inside a host cell

They are killed by penicillin

They are multicellular organisms

Diarrhea

Constipation

Increased appetite

High blood sugar

The cost of the atoms used

The ratio of the mass of desired product to the mass of all reactants

The number of atoms in the final product

The speed at which atoms collide

It acts as a chiral catalyst that lowers the activation energy of the reaction without being chemically bonded to the reactant.

It is used to separate a racemic mixture into its individual enantiomers through the formation of diastereomeric salts.

It is a temporary chiral group that directs the stereochemistry of the reaction to produce a single enantiomer.

It is a protective group used to prevent the oxidation of hydroxyl groups during the various stages of synthesis.

Constipation

Increased appetite

Diarrhea

Vitamin C deficiency

Intravenous injection provides the fastest increase in blood plasma concentration.

Oral administration ensures 100% bioavailability.

Rectal administration is the most common way to avoid the blood-brain barrier.

Inhalation is only used for drugs that target the liver.

It must emit alpha particles.

It must emit positrons which annihilate with electrons to produce two gamma rays in opposite directions.

It must have a half-life of at least several years.

It must be a stable isotope of carbon or oxygen.

The Efficiency factor; a high value implies a very efficient process.

The Environmental factor; a high value implies more waste per kilogram of product.

The Energy factor; a high value implies high energy consumption.

The Extraction factor; a high value implies the drug is easily extracted from nature.

It increases the absorption of amoxicillin in the small intestine.

It acts as a competitive inhibitor for the beta-lactamase enzyme, protecting the amoxicillin ring.

It is an antiviral that provides a synergistic effect against respiratory infections.

It acts as a buffer to keep the $pH$ of the stomach high.