Nuclear and Quantum Physics

Mass is lost as thermal energy during the formation of the nucleus.

Some mass is converted into binding energy to hold the nucleus together.

Neutrinos carry away a portion of the mass during nuclear formation.

The measurement of individual nucleons is less precise than the whole nucleus.

Alpha ($\alpha$)

Beta-minus ($\beta^-$)

Gamma ($\gamma$)

Neutron

$Z$ increases by 1, $A$ remains the same

$Z$ decreases by 1, $A$ remains the same

$Z$ decreases by 2, $A$ decreases by 4

$Z$ remains the same, $A$ decreases by 1

Total binding energy increases and total mass increases.

Total binding energy decreases and total mass decreases.

Total binding energy decreases and total mass increases.

Total binding energy increases and total mass decreases.

$^{56}_{26}\text{Fe}$

$^{235}_{92}\text{U}$

$^{4}_{2}\text{He}$

$^{1}_{1}\text{H}$

To absorb excess neutrons and stop the chain reaction.

To slow down fast-moving neutrons to thermal speeds to increase the probability of fission.

To transfer thermal energy from the reactor core to the heat exchanger.

To shield the environment from harmful gamma radiation.

Transition from $n=2$ to $n=1$

Transition from $n=3$ to $n=2$

Transition from $n=1$ to $n=3$

Transition from $n=3$ to $n=1$

The photoelectric effect

Electron diffraction by a crystal lattice

The emission of discrete spectral lines from hydrogen

The Compton effect

The intensity of light must be above a certain threshold

The wavelength of light must be greater than the threshold wavelength

The frequency of light must be greater than the threshold frequency of the metal

The exposure time must be long enough for energy to accumulate

Three quarks

Two quarks

One quark and one antiquark

Three leptons

Gluon

Photon

W boson

Z boson

$+2/3 e$

$-2/3 e$

$+1/3 e$

$-1/3 e$

1 decay per minute

10 decays per second

$6.02 x 10^{23} decays per second$

1 decay per second

Neutrino

Antineutrino

Positron

Alpha particle

Two protons and two neutrons

One electron and one antineutrino

A high-energy electromagnetic photon

A single positively charged proton