Human Physiology

To store food for several days

To provide maximum time and surface area for absorption

To produce more hydrochloric acid

To prevent the growth of bacteria

Breaking down food using enzymes

Taking food into the mouth

Absorbing nutrients into the blood

Removing waste from the body

The stomach acid is too weak to break it down

Human enzymes like amylase cannot break $\beta$-1,4 linkages

Cellulose is too small to be targeted by enzymes

It is only found in animal tissues

Cardiac sphincter

Pyloric sphincter

Anal sphincter

Epiglottis

The starch molecules become more stable.

The amylase enzymes denature.

The activation energy of the reaction increases.

Water evaporates from the digestive juices.

The lumen of the gut narrows.

The gut becomes shorter and wider.

The food is pushed backward toward the mouth.

The circular muscles are inhibited from contracting.

Mouth

Stomach

Duodenum

Ileum

Thick muscular walls to pump nutrients

A single layer of epithelial cells providing a short diffusion path

A lack of blood vessels to prevent nutrient dilution

A highly acidic surface to further break down proteins

The total surface area available for the insertion of transport proteins is reduced

The circular muscles can no longer perform peristalsis

The pancreas stops producing amylase

Bile can no longer enter the duodenum

Hydrolysis of maltose into glucose by maltase

Hydrolysis of amylose into maltose by amylase

Absorption of glucose via the SGLT-1 transporter

Transport of glucose into the hepatic portal vein

The heart

The liver

The bone marrow

The spleen

They have a very large nucleus

They lack a nucleus at maturity

They are spherical in shape

They have many mitochondria

Through specialized hormone ducts

By attachment to red blood cells

Dissolved in the blood plasma

Through the nervous system

Between the atria and the ventricles

At the openings of the vena cava

At the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery

Inside the pulmonary veins

The first heart sound 'lub' is heard

The second heart sound 'dub' is heard

The ventricles begin to contract

The atria begin to contract

Transporting nutrients

Clotting of blood

Defending the body against infection

Maintaining osmotic pressure

It carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body

It operates at a higher pressure than systemic circulation

It involves the right side of the heart

It delivers oxygenated blood to the tissues

They receive most of their blood during ventricular systole.

They receive most of their blood during ventricular diastole.

They receive a constant flow regardless of the cardiac cycle.

They only receive blood when the heart rate exceeds $100\text{ bpm}$.

The aortic valve remains slightly open to allow continuous flow.

The atria contract during ventricular diastole to keep the aorta full.

The elastic walls of the aorta recoil and maintain pressure on the blood.

The skeletal muscle pump in the legs pushes blood back up to the aorta.

A stroke in the brain.

A myocardial infarction (heart attack).

A pulmonary embolism in the lungs.

A sudden rise in systemic blood pressure.

Type 1 Diabetes

Scurvy

Tuberculosis

Color blindness

It is broken down into amino acids

It is converted from a soluble form into an insoluble fibrous form

It is released from platelets into the air

It is used to synthesize new white blood cells

Finishing the entire prescribed course of antibiotics

Using antibiotics for viral infections where they have no effect

The use of vaccinations against bacterial diseases

The presence of lysosomes in human phagocytes

They can bind to any protein in the body

They allow the antibody to bind to one specific antigen

They allow the antibody to act as an enzyme for digestion

They make the antibody resistant to heat

It involves phagocytes instead of lymphocytes

It produces a higher concentration of antibodies in a shorter time

It only occurs in the presence of antibiotics

It is slower because the body must create new antigens

Smallpox viruses are extremely sensitive to penicillin

The virus only infects humans, and a global vaccination program was implemented

The virus mutated into a harmless form after many years

Improved sanitation led to the elimination of the smallpox vector

DNA Polymerase

Reverse Transcriptase

Thrombin

Lysozyme

It determines the antigen specificity of the antibody

It binds to the epitope of the pathogen

It determines the class of the antibody (e.g., IgG vs IgE) and its secondary functions

It is the part of the antibody that undergoes somatic hypermutation

Individual bacteria learn to tolerate the antibiotic and pass this knowledge to offspring

The antibiotic causes mutations in the bacteria that make them resistant

Random mutations provide a survival advantage in the presence of the antibiotic, leading to differential reproduction

Bacteria produce more offspring in the presence of antibiotics to ensure some survive

The type of antibodies present on the surface of their white blood cells

The specific glycoprotein antigens present on the surface of their erythrocytes

The concentration of clotting factors in their plasma

The number of lysosomes in their macrophages

Trachea

Alveoli

Bronchioles

Capillaries

Two muscles that work together to perform the same movement

Two muscles that move in opposite directions to each other

A muscle and a bone working together

A muscle that never relaxes

Pressure increases

Pressure decreases

Pressure remains unchanged

Pressure reaches equilibrium with the blood

Oxygen is higher in the pulmonary vein

Oxygen is lower in the pulmonary vein

Oxygen levels are identical

The pulmonary vein does not contain oxygen

The blood becomes more alkaline

The breathing rate increases to expel the gas

The diaphragm stays contracted for longer periods

The hemoglobin binds more tightly to oxygen

They undergo mitosis rapidly to replace damaged lung tissue

They are specialized for gas exchange due to their large surface area and thinness

They secrete surfactant to keep the lungs moist

They contract to help push air out of the alveoli

They allow the alveoli to expand during inhalation and recoil during exhalation

They act as filters to trap dust particles that escaped the mucus

They provide the energy needed for the diffusion of gases

They connect the alveoli directly to the bronchioles

Atmospheric pressure must be lower than the pressure inside the thoracic cavity.

Atmospheric pressure must be higher than the pressure inside the thoracic cavity.

The diaphragm must be in a contracted, flattened state.

The volume of the thoracic cavity must increase.

The Cerebellum

The Corpus Callosum

The Medulla Oblongata

The Hypothalamus

Hemoglobin picks up more oxygen in the lungs.

Hemoglobin releases more oxygen to the tissues where $CO_2$ levels are high.

The blood becomes more alkaline, improving oxygen transport.

The rate of ventilation decreases to conserve $CO_2$.

Neurotransmitter breakdown

Opening of voltage-gated calcium channels

Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors

Opening of sodium channels on the post-synaptic membrane

Saltation

Summation

Propagation

Depolarization

To detect changes in the environment

To carry signals from the CNS to muscles

To connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS

To produce myelin for the peripheral nerves

Humans do not have acetylcholine

Insects have more myelin than humans

Neonicotinoids bind much more strongly to insect receptors than human receptors

Humans do not have synapses

The minimum time between two action potentials

The maximum voltage a neuron can reach

The membrane potential at which an action potential is triggered

The total amount of neurotransmitter in a vesicle

Ligand-gated sodium channels open

Voltage-gated potassium channels close

The membrane becomes hyperpolarized

The pre-synaptic neuron is inhibited

$K^+$ moving out

$Na^+$ moving in

$Ca^{2+}$ moving in

$Cl^-$ moving out

The depolarization phase would be steeper.

The peak of the action potential would be higher.

The hyperpolarization phase would be deeper and longer.

The resting potential would become $-50$ mV.

It actively transports $K^{+}$ ions into the cell.

It acts as an insulator that prevents the free diffusion of ions.

It provides the energy (ATP) needed for ion movement.

It contains the receptors for acetylcholine.

The resting potential would become more negative.

The peak of the action potential would be lower (less positive).

Repolarization would occur more quickly.

The hyperpolarization phase would be eliminated.

It produces sperm

It transports both urine and semen out of the body

It stores sperm for maturation

It secretes testosterone into the blood

Thyroxin - Pancreas

Glucagon - Thyroid gland

Insulin - Pancreas

Melatonin - Adipose tissue

Thyroxin

Leptin

Melatonin

Insulin

The maximum possible value of a variable

The value at which a variable is normally maintained

The minimum possible value of a variable

The point where a hormone is no longer produced

Their ability to produce estrogen

Their health and viability (and sometimes genetic defects)

The presence of the $SRY$ gene in all cases

The amount of yolk they contain

The brain

The stomach

The fat stores of the body

The small intestine

To produce progesterone after ovulation.

To nourish the developing egg cell and secrete estrogen.

To travel down the fallopian tube to the uterus.

To provide the site for fertilization.

Arterioles near the skin surface are constricting.

The hypothalamus is sending signals to increase the metabolic rate.

Sweat glands are being stimulated to release moisture for evaporative cooling.

The person is shivering to generate more internal heat.

Type II Diabetes

Type I Diabetes

Hypothyroidism

Leptin Resistance

The completion of Meiosis II in the oocyte.

The rupture of the Graafian follicle and release of the secondary oocyte.

The immediate start of menstruation.

The transformation of the corpus luteum into a follicle.

Estrogen

Testosterone

FSH

LH

Type I Diabetes

Type II Diabetes

Hyperthyroidism

Reduced leptin production

By decreasing the basal metabolic rate

By increasing the production of thyroxin by the thyroid gland

By secreting more insulin

By increasing the rate of sweating

Progesterone

Oxytocin

Estrogen

Prolactin

Menstruation, triggered by a drop in progesterone

Ovulation, triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH)

Ovulation, triggered by a surge in follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Follicle maturation, triggered by a rise in estrogen

They are inhibited from releasing any hormones

They secrete insulin into the bloodstream

They secrete glucagon into the bloodstream

They convert glucose into glycogen within the cell

Thyroid

Pancreas

Pineal

Adrenal

LH

FSH

Progesterone

Oxytocin

In Type I, insulin is not produced; in Type II, insulin is produced but the target cells are resistant.

In Type I, the liver ignores insulin; in Type II, the pancreas is destroyed by the immune system.

In Type I, glucose is converted to fat too quickly; in Type II, glucose is excreted by the lungs.

In Type I, the alpha cells are overactive; in Type II, the beta cells are overactive.

The melting point of the lipid bilayer in hypothalamic neurons.

A specific firing rate of warm-sensitive and cold-sensitive neurons.

The concentration of glucose required to keep the hypothalamus functioning.

The rate at which thyroxin is degraded in the blood.

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